Introduction to Software Engineering |
Lecture
2: Software Processes |
Topics covered
² Software process models
² Process activities
² Coping with change
² The Rational Unified Process
§
An example of a modern software process.
The software process
² A structured set of activities required to develop
a software system.
² Many different software processes but all involve:
§
Specification – defining what the system should do;
§
Design and implementation – defining the organization of the system and
implementing the system;
§
Validation – checking that it does what the customer wants;
§
Evolution – changing the system in response to changing customer needs.
² A software process model is an abstract
representation of a process. It presents a description of a process from some
particular perspective.
Software process descriptions
² When we describe and discuss processes, we usually
talk about the activities in these processes such as specifying a data model,
designing a user interface, etc. and the ordering of these activities.
² Process descriptions may also include:
§
Products, which are the outcomes of a process activity;
§
Roles, which reflect the responsibilities of the people involved in the
process;
§
Pre- and post-conditions, which are statements that are true before and
after a process activity has been enacted or a product produced.
Plan-driven and agile processes
² Plan-driven processes are processes where all of
the process activities are planned in advance and progress is measured against
this plan.
² In agile processes, planning is incremental and it
is easier to change the process to reflect changing customer requirements.
² In practice, most practical processes include
elements of both plan-driven and agile approaches.
² There are no right or wrong software processes.
Software process models
² The waterfall model
§
Plan-driven model. Separate and distinct phases of specification and
development.
² Incremental development
§
Specification, development and validation are interleaved. May be
plan-driven or agile.
² Reuse-oriented software engineering
§
The system is assembled from existing components. May be plan-driven or
agile.
² In practice, most large systems are developed using
a process that incorporates elements from all of these models.
The waterfall model
Waterfall model phases
² There are separate identified phases in the
waterfall model:
§
Requirements analysis and definition
§
System and software design
§
Implementation and unit testing
§
Integration and system testing
§
Operation and maintenance
² The main drawback of the waterfall model is the
difficulty of accommodating change after the process is underway. In principle,
a phase has to be complete before moving onto the next phase.
Waterfall model problems
² Inflexible partitioning of the project into distinct
stages makes it difficult to respond to changing customer requirements.
§
Therefore, this model is only appropriate when the requirements are
well-understood and changes will be fairly limited during the design process.
§
Few business systems have stable requirements.
² The waterfall model is mostly used for large
systems engineering projects where a system is developed at several sites.
§
In those circumstances, the plan-driven nature of the waterfall model
helps coordinate the work.
Incremental development
Incremental development benefits
² The cost of accommodating changing customer
requirements is reduced.
§
The amount of analysis and documentation that has to be redone is much
less than is required with the waterfall model.
² It is easier to get customer feedback on the
development work that has been done.
§
Customers can comment on demonstrations of the software and see how much
has been implemented.
² More rapid delivery and deployment of useful
software to the customer is possible.
§
Customers are able to use and gain value from the software earlier than
is possible with a waterfall process.
Incremental development problems
² The process is not visible.
§
Managers need regular deliverables to measure progress. If systems are developed
quickly, it is not cost-effective to produce documents that reflect every
version of the system.
² System structure tends to degrade as new increments
are added.
§
Unless time and money is spent on refactoring to improve the software,
regular change tends to corrupt its structure. Incorporating further software
changes becomes increasingly difficult and costly.
Reuse-oriented software engineering
² Based on systematic reuse where systems are
integrated from existing components or COTS (Commercial-off-the-shelf) systems.
² Process stages
§
Component analysis;
§
Requirements modification;
§
System design with reuse;
§
Development and integration.
² Reuse is now the standard approach for building
many types of business system
Reuse-oriented software engineering
Types of software component
² Web services that are developed according to
service standards and which are available for remote invocation.
² Collections of objects that are developed as a package
to be integrated with a component framework such as .NET or J2EE.
² Stand-alone software systems (COTS) that are
configured for use in a particular environment.
Process activities
² Real software processes are inter-leaved sequences of
technical, collaborative and managerial activities with the overall goal of
specifying, designing, implementing and testing a software system.
² The four basic process activities of specification,
development, validation and evolution are organized differently in different
development processes. In the waterfall model, they are organized in sequence,
whereas in incremental development they are inter-leaved.
Software specification
² The process of establishing what services are
required and the constraints on the system’s operation and development.
² Requirements engineering process
§
Feasibility study
•
Is it technically and financially feasible to build the system?
§
Requirements elicitation and analysis
•
What do the system stakeholders require or expect from the system?
§
Requirements specification
•
Defining the requirements in detail
§
Requirements validation
•
Checking the validity of the requirements
The requirements engineering process
Software design and implementation
² The process of converting the system specification
into an executable system.
² Software design
§
Design a software structure that realises the specification;
² Implementation
§
Translate this structure into an executable program;
² The activities of design and implementation are
closely related and may be inter-leaved.
A general model of the design process
Design activities
² Architectural design, where you identify the overall structure of the
system, the principal components (sometimes called sub-systems or modules), their relationships and how they are distributed.
² Interface design, where you define the interfaces between system
components.
² Component design, where you take each system component and design how
it will operate.
² Database design, where you design the system data structures and how
these are to be represented in a database.
Software validation
² Verification and validation (V & V) is intended
to show that a system conforms to its specification and meets the requirements
of the system customer.
² Involves checking and review processes and system
testing.
² System testing involves executing the system with
test cases that are derived from the specification of the real data to be
processed by the system.
² Testing is the most commonly used V & V
activity.
Stages of testing
Testing stages
² Development or component testing
§
Individual components are tested independently;
§
Components may be functions or objects or coherent groupings of these
entities.
² System testing
§
Testing of the system as a whole. Testing of emergent properties is
particularly important.
² Acceptance testing
§
Testing with customer data to check that the system meets the customer’s
needs.
Testing phases in a plan-driven software process
Software evolution
² Software is inherently flexible and can change.
² As requirements change through changing business
circumstances, the software that supports the business must also evolve and
change.
² Although there has been a demarcation between
development and evolution (maintenance) this is increasingly irrelevant as
fewer and fewer systems are completely new.
System evolution
Key points
· Software processes are the activities involved in
producing a software system. Software process models are abstract
representations of these processes.
· General process models describe the organization of
software processes. Examples of these general models include the ‘waterfall’
model, incremental
development, and reuse-oriented development.
· Requirements engineering is the process of
developing a software specification.
· Design and implementation processes are concerned
with transforming a requirements specification into an executable software
system.
· Software validation is the process of checking that
the system conforms to its specification and that it meets the real needs of
the users of the system.
· Software evolution takes place when you change
existing software systems to meet new requirements. The software must evolve to
remain useful.
Software Processes
Coping with change
² Change
is inevitable in all large software projects.
§
Business changes lead to new and changed system
requirements
§
New technologies open up new possibilities for
improving implementations
§
Changing platforms require application changes
² Change
leads to rework so the costs of change include both rework (e.g. re-analysing requirements) as well as the costs of
implementing new functionality
Reducing the costs of rework
² Change avoidance, where the software process
includes activities that can anticipate possible changes before significant
rework is required.
§
For example, a prototype system may be developed to show some key
features of the system to customers.
² Change tolerance, where the process is designed so
that changes can be accommodated at relatively low cost.
§
This normally involves some form of incremental development. Proposed
changes may be implemented in increments that have not yet been developed. If
this is impossible, then only a single increment (a small part of the system)
may have be altered to incorporate the change.
Software prototyping
² A
prototype is an initial version of a system used to demonstrate concepts and
try out design options.
² A
prototype can be used in:
§
The requirements engineering process to help with requirements
elicitation and validation;
§
In design processes to explore options and develop
a UI design;
§
In the testing process to run back-to-back tests.
Benefits of prototyping
² Improved
system usability.
² A
closer match to users’ real needs.
² Improved
design quality.
² Improved
maintainability.
² Reduced
development effort.
The process of prototype development
Prototype development
² May
be based on rapid prototyping languages or tools
² May
involve leaving out functionality
§
Prototype should focus on areas of the product that
are not well-understood;
§
Error checking and recovery may not be included in
the prototype;
§
Focus on functional rather than non-functional
requirements such as reliability and security
Throw-away prototypes
² Prototypes
should be discarded after development as they are not a good basis for a
production system:
§
It may be impossible to tune the system to meet
non-functional requirements;
§
Prototypes are normally undocumented;
§
The prototype structure is usually degraded through
rapid change;
§
The prototype probably will not meet normal organisational quality standards.
Incremental delivery
² Rather than deliver the system as a single
delivery, the development and delivery is broken down into increments with each
increment delivering part of the required functionality.
² User requirements are prioritised and the highest
priority requirements are included in early increments.
² Once the development of an increment is started,
the requirements are frozen though requirements for later increments can
continue to evolve.
Incremental development and
delivery
² Incremental
development
§
Develop the system in increments and evaluate each increment
before proceeding to the development of the next increment;
§
Normal approach used in agile methods;
§
Evaluation done by user/customer proxy.
² Incremental
delivery
§
Deploy an increment for use by end-users;
§
More realistic evaluation about practical use of
software;
§
Difficult to implement for replacement systems as
increments have less functionality than the system being replaced.
Incremental delivery
Incremental delivery advantages
² Customer value can be delivered with each increment
so system functionality is available earlier.
² Early increments act as a prototype to help elicit
requirements for later increments.
² Lower risk of overall project failure.
² The highest priority system services tend to
receive the most testing.
Incremental delivery problems
² Most systems require a set of basic facilities that
are used by different parts of the system.
§
As requirements are not defined in detail until an increment is to be implemented,
it can be hard to identify common facilities that are needed by all increments.
² The essence of iterative processes is that the
specification is developed in conjunction with the software.
§
However, this conflicts with the procurement model of many
organizations, where the complete system specification is part of the system
development contract.
Boehm’s spiral model
² Process is represented as a spiral rather than as a
sequence of activities with backtracking.
² Each loop in the spiral represents a phase in the
process.
² No fixed phases such as specification or design -
loops in the spiral are chosen depending on what is required.
² Risks are explicitly assessed and resolved
throughout the process.
Boehm’s spiral model of the software process
Spiral model sectors
² Objective setting
§
Specific objectives for the phase are identified.
² Risk assessment and reduction
§
Risks are assessed and activities put in place to reduce the key risks.
² Development and validation
§
A development model for the system is chosen which can be any of the generic
models.
² Planning
§
The project is reviewed and the next phase of the spiral is planned.
Spiral model usage
² Spiral
model has been very influential in helping people think about iteration in software
processes and introducing the risk-driven approach to development.
² In
practice, however, the model is rarely used as published for practical software
development.
The Rational Unified Process
² A
modern generic process derived from the work on the UML and associated process.
² Brings
together aspects of the 3 generic process models discussed previously.
² Normally
described from 3 perspectives
§
A dynamic perspective that shows phases over time;
§
A static perspective that shows process activities;
§
A practive perspective
that suggests good practice.
Phases in the Rational Unified Process
RUP phases
² Inception
§
Establish the business case for the system.
² Elaboration
§
Develop an understanding of the problem domain and
the system architecture.
² Construction
§
System design, programming and testing.
² Transition
§
Deploy the system in its operating environment.
RUP iteration
² In-phase
iteration
§
Each phase is iterative with results developed
incrementally.
² Cross-phase
iteration
§
As shown by the loop in the RUP model, the whole
set of phases may be enacted incrementally.
Static workflows in the Rational Unified Process
Workflow |
Description |
Business
modelling |
The
business processes are modelled using business use cases. |
Requirements |
Actors
who interact with the system are identified and use cases are developed to
model the system requirements. |
AnalyStatic workflows in the
Rational Unified Processsis
and design |
A
design model is created and documented using architectural models, component
models, object models and sequence models. |
Implementation |
The
components in the system are implemented and structured into implementation
sub-systems. Automatic code generation from design models helps accelerate
this process. |
Testing |
Testing is an iterative process that is
carried out in conjunction with implementation. System testing follows the
completion of the implementation. |
Deployment |
A product release is created, distributed
to users and installed in their workplace. |
Configuration
and change management |
This supporting workflow managed changes to
the system (see Chapter 25). |
Project
management |
This supporting workflow manages the system
development (see Chapters 22 and 23). |
Environment |
This workflow is concerned with making
appropriate software tools available to the software development team. |
RUP good practice
· Develop
software iteratively
o Plan
increments based on customer priorities and deliver highest priority increments
first.
· Manage
requirements
o Explicitly
document customer requirements and keep track of changes to these requirements.
· Use
component-based architectures
o Organize
the system architecture as a set of reusable components.
· Visually
model software
o Use
graphical UML models to present static and dynamic views of the software.
· Verify
software quality
o Ensure
that the software meet’s organizational quality standards.
· Control
changes to software
o Manage
software changes using a change management system and configuration management
tools.
Key points
· Processes should include activities to cope with
change. This may involve a prototyping phase that helps avoid poor decisions on
requirements and design.
· Processes may be structured for iterative development
and delivery so that changes may be made without disrupting the system as a
whole.
· The Rational Unified Process is a modern generic
process model that is organized into phases (inception, elaboration,
construction and transition) but separates activities (requirements, analysis
and design, etc.) from these phases.