Computer Gaming and Society

HISTORY OF VIDEO GAMES

The idea of the videogame goes back as far as the 1950’s.  In the 1951 an engineer called Ralph Baer from Loral, a company that developed and manufactured complex military equipment was instructed to build the best television in the world.  Back then Baer suggested the idea of having an interactive game with the television that would separate it from all the others.  Unfortunately the idea was not used.

The first computer game did not come out till 1952 by A. S. Douglass.  This was the first graphical computer game, which was a version tic-tac-toe programmed on the EDSA.

William Higinbotham created the first “video game” in 1958 called “Tennis for Two.”  It was created and played on a Brookhaven National Laboratory oscilloscope.

      In 1962 Steve Russell created the game “SpaceWar!” which was the first game made for use on computers. Russell used a MIT PDP-1 mainframe computer to design the game.

      In 1967 Ralph Baer, who was working for Sanders Associates (a military electronics firm), went on and created the first video game to be played on a television like he envisioned in 1951.  This game was called Chase.

      Between the years 1971-1977 the development of the home videogame system really took off.  These years are better known as the beginning years of videogames.

In 1971 Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney created the first arcade game called “Computer Space.”  It was based on Steve Russel’s “SpaceWar!” game.  Nolan created the popular game “Pong.” A year later Nollan and Dabney created Atari Computers, and in 1975 released the popular “Pong” as a home video game.

The first commercial videogame system “The Odyssey” was released by Magnavox and created/designed by Ralph Baer in 1972.  Baer came up with the design while working at Sanders Associates, and was lucky enough to get legal rights to the machine after Sanders Associates had rejected it.  “The Odyssey” was loaded with twelve games.

In the year 1976 Fairchild Camera and Instrument released a videogame system known as “Channel F.”  This system looked more as what people would think when they think of a videogame system with cartridges that looked like an old audio 8 track. In the year 1977, Atari was once again in the news as it released its cartridge based game system known as the Atari 2600. Between the years 1978-1981 the videogame industry really took off.  These years are known as the golden age of videogames.

In 1978 several events took place.  Nolan Bushnell left Atari and signed a five year agreement not to compete against the company he made. It was also the year that two new entertainment systems came out.  One, Atari began to sell the Atari 400 and 800 computers to try to compete against Apple computers.  Though most people at that time associated games with Atari and the computers did not sell well.  Two, Magnavox released its update to the “Odyssey,” called the “Odyssey 2.”  However, one of the most impressive advancements comes from the graphics.  This is also the year that the videogame industry started with vector (line) graphics. 1980 was an interesting year for videogames because that was the year the military got involved, and also the year that “Pac-man” appeared.  Atari designer ED Rottberg created the game “Battlezone,” in which people could drive a tank in warlike scenarios.  The military saw the game’s potential and asked for an enhanced version of the game in order to train soldiers.  “Pac-man” was an instant success, and some even call it the most popular game of all time.  It sold over 300,000 units. In 1981 one of the weirdest events occurred; A man died from playing videogames; the industry’s only known fatality.
     

The years 1982-1984 were known as a black time for the video game industry.  Many publishers and/or developers were developing so many items that third parties went out of business due to the cheapness of the other major developers.

In 1985, a breakthrough was made. This system had an 8-bit CPU (6502 @ 1.79 MHz) and 2 kilobytes of RAM. The graphics were capable of achieving the maximum resolution of 256*224 pixels and 16 simultaneous colors. This would be one of today’s most popular gaming consoles, the Nintendo NES. First released in Japan then later released to the United States and the rest of the world. The Nintendo NES was designed by  Masayuki Uemura. This system used game cartridges of course.

In 1988, NEC made a gaming system called the NEC Turbografx-16 which was released in Japan.  This system was released the following year in the United States. The Turbografx -16 was a 16 bit game machine that had an 8-bit CPU as its processor. This was also the first system to have a CD player capability.

In 1989, Sega released a 16 bit gaming system called the Genesis which costs about $199. It ran on a 16-bit CPU (Motorola 68000 @ 7.6 MHz) and 72 kbytes RAM in addition to 64 Kbytes video RAM. Games that were popular for the system was “Sonic The Hedgehog”.
In 1990, Nintendo released another system known as the SuperNES or in Japan the Super Famicom. The game console still used the game cartridges but they weren’t as big as they use to be in the NES system.

In 1994, Japan released the Saga Saturn. The system was later released in 1995 in the United States. This system was selling well in Japan. On the other hand it didn’t do so well in the United States. As a result, Sega launched the Dreamcast system, which sold well until Sony released the Playstation2 in 2000.

In 1995, Sony released it’s first gaming console. The Playstation. This system didn’t require cartridges like the other systems. Instead the games were in CD Rom format. This was a relief for many video gamers because they didn’t have to worry about the constant cleaning and maintenance of the cartridge games like Nintendo. Sony’s main games at the time was the Resident Evil series, Tomb Raider and Crash Bandicoot (which was Sony’s main mascot). In 2000, Sony released Playstation 2 in Japan and then the following year it was released in the United States. The Playstation 2 beat the Dreamcast and as a result in the late 2000’s Dreamcast sells declined and the production line for the systems came to a halt. Sega began to make games for the systems that’ll come in later 2000.
In 1996, Nintendo released the N64. This system used a 64 bit CPU processor. Games for this system included 007  Golden Eye, and Mario Go Kart Racing.

1989 through 1992 the home market for videogames expanded greatly.  All the major companies: Nintendo, SEGA, and Atari came out with new systems to replace their already outstanding lineup.  All of them went on to replace their 8-bit systems with 16-bit systems that boosted the graphics greatly.  Nintendo, after the success of its NES, released the SNES (S standing for super) and SEGA came out with the SEGA Genesis.  Another concept that came out during this time was the idea of mobile videogames.  Nintendo and Atari both came out with their own mobile video game systems.  Nintendo released the “Game Boy,” which was sold for $109 back in 1989, and Atari came out with the “Lynx,” which sold for $149. Also, during this time SEGA came out with one of its trademark characters known as “Sonic the Hedgehog” which was meant to be a rival to that of Nintendo’s “Mario” from its game “Super Mario Brothers”, Sonic was (and is still) one of the most popular characters in video games even today.

1993 through 1997 was just like the previous 3 years (most new systems are released once every 3 or 4 years) for videogame system makers.  All the major companies came out with new systems, and one had updated their system, some to 32-bits, and some to 64-bits.  SEGA released two systems during this time.  It first released the “32X,” which was a 32-bit enhancement for the SEGA Genesis; then it came out with a CD based system known as the “SEGA Saturn.”  The Saturn did much more popular than the 32X was.  Atari   Nintendo not to be outdone came out with a 64-bit system known as the “N64,” which was as popular as all of its predecessors.  Atari released a 64-bit system as well known as the “Atari Jaguar,” but was not as popular as the other systems that came out.  And, a final newcomer to the video game market, Sony came out with its 32-bit system the “PlayStation,” which was taken just as well as the N64.  By the end of 1997 all the critics were anticipating what the companies would roll out for their next generation of systems; they did not have to wait long.

With all these new systems and technology the future of the industry of video gaming looks bright; as a matter of fact it is already here.  Microsoft has just released its newest system to take the place of the Xbox known as the “Xbox 360;” Sony is working on its next Playstation known as the “Playstation 3”, and Nintendo is working on its next system as well known as the “Revolution.”

WHY PLAY VIDEO GAMES?

There has been little attention on the study as to why people play video games. Considering the vast number of players, and the amount of money that is spent on games, this has been to be seen as a small factor of doing research. Computer games provide a medium that engages people for long periods of time, and gamers usually return to the same game many times over. There are obvious lessons here for the developers of digitally based educational, learning and training materials.

For example, one of the most popular video games is that of Pokemon, in which players collect a menagerie of monsters. Pokemon is played by millions of people, mainly children, on handheld and television-based consoles. Players enthusiastically learn a large amount of information during play, such as the fighting and defensive attributes of each monster, and the likely outcome of the interaction (through battles) of these attributes. It is here that developers of educational materials may benefit from exploring why people play Pokemon to such an extent, how people so easily soak up such large amounts of information during play, and how this process can be replicated as part of education and learning.

ONLINE GAMES

The three television-based consoles described in section 2 all contain a modem and/or broadband port. This is primarily so users can play multiplayer games against opponents situated elsewhere in the world.

The GameCube, PS2 and Xbox are not the first consoles to offer online access. The critically acclaimed but short-lived Sega Dreamcast contained a modem, which allowed people to either play games online, or "browse the web" using a proprietary browser. Some games provided only static online interaction, for example, updating a centrally held league table of high score. Others allowed more dynamic interaction, where people could play either against each other or in teams. Therefore, these games were designed so in-game "lag" or delay caused by data transmission was minimized and did not affect game play.

PC has shown that online gaming is rapidly growing and hugely popular. Games such as EverQuest and Ultima attracts a large number of simultaneous users. Phantasy Star Online offers a feature that has a sophisticated multilingual player communication system. One interesting online game is that of Lineage, a subscription-based game with 10 million registered users, and regular simultaneous access by over 100,000 players, many playing from cyber cafés in South Korea. Market predictions from industry commentators indicate a large growth in online gaming, hence the inclusion of such facilities as standard by manufacturers of the newer consoles.

GAMES AND HOW THEY ARE USED AS A METHOD OF LEARNING

According to the investigation, commissioned as part of Teaching with Games, a research project by NESTA Futurelab and EA, 59% of teachers questioned would consider using games in their classroom for educational purposes. The study also found that 53% would consider using computer games as an interactive tool to help motivate and engage pupils. The majority of teachers questioned believed that playing mainstream games can lead to improved skills and knowledge, with 91% feeling that those who played games developed their motor-cognitive skills, and 60% felt that users would develop a higher order thinking skills and could also acquire topic-specific knowledge.

There are a number of pre-university colleges that are offering multimedia courses that contains the elements of game design, programming, and music.  For example, outside in the U.K., there is a growing collection of academic and educational establishments offering gaming-related courses and qualifications; Kurt Squire presents an excellent 3-part analysis of gaming-related courses in US higher education.  In addition to courses, several UK research and development centers devoted to gaming have recently launched, joining the rising number of centers and research groups in other countries. 

After discussion with game companies concerning staff skill requirements, correspondence with academics revealed that courses were often developed. While knowledge of languages such as C/C++ for programmers and experience of particular tools for designers was essential, a body of knowledge and skills in other areas was often deemed necessary which includes mathematics, object physics, knowledge of gaming console architecture, and knowledge of gaming aesthetics and genres.

Experience of some of these more specialized topics is increasingly gained through collaboration between academic departments and local games development companies. Such collaborations often occur due to academic staff being games enthusiasts, with contacts in these local companies. These collaborations sometime result in donations of resources, company-funded PhDs and research projects, and student placements in the gaming companies. Console manufacturers such as Sony donate resources to a number of university departments, ensuring the next generation of industry staff gains experience of developing on their consoles. Correspondence with Xbox staff indicates that similar academic collaborations will take place once the console is launched in the remaining territories.
Computer science is not the only academic subject of relevance to video game development. Indeed, as "middleware" (software tools that assist with game creation) becomes more widespread, so the role of pure programming is slightly reducing in importance. Examination of a selection of gaming genre and titles reveal features of relevance to several academic subjects. For example, geography and urban planning are associated with in-game landscape, building and community recreation; engineering and physics are essential to the realistic simulation of vehicles; history is useful for accurate re-creations of events, characters and societies; the arts for character development; and music for sound effects.

Though these sectors of academia are yet to work with the gaming industry on any significant scale, isolated collaborations and cross-sector use of skills, tools, research and experience are occurring. For example, several projects in the architecture sector have taken software originally developed for FPS (First Person Shooter) games, and used it to create accurate and viewable representations of buildings and landscapes. The results are often comparable to those produced by using established architectural virtual reality modeling systems, but at a small fraction of the cost.

HOW VIDEO GAMES AFFECT SOCIETY

When it comes to playing video games, we first look at the demographical perspective as to who are the group of people that are involved.  Society views video games as a way for males to escape from the sociable world and therefore, live it up in a fantasy world.   Since society considers video gaming to be a male-dominated hobby, any regard for girls to play video games would not be taken lightly.  Instead, they would shun the idea of girls playing video games as a ludicrous way of having it as a past time hobby.
We can say that the term “geek” is implied to whoever plays video games.  In fact, we associate the word “geeks” in order to assume that anyone who plays video games are a bunch of geniuses. 

Drawing upon symbolic interactionism, we find that individuals make sense of the world around them by using the meanings that the members of society have come to share. Individuals, like actors in a stage production, occupy particular roles. They "play" these roles according to society's norms, or expectations, for the particular role. However, while there are societal expectations about given roles, the rules for "playing" the role are not rigid. Rather, within the confines of the meaning attributed to a role by society, individuals develop "identities" that define what a particular role means to them. Thus, they are able to manipulate the way that they "play" a specific role. Children, too, manipulate and learn roles through childhood play. Play during childhood becomes an important component of socialization.

THE FUTURE ON VIDEO GAMES

Currently there are a couple of gaming systems out there. Microsoft’s Xbox was released in 2001. This system would compete with Sony’s PS2 and Nintendo’s GameCube. The PS2 and Xbox had similar features which are (1) built in DVD players. and (2) ability to connect to the Internet to play online games. On the other hand the PS2 didn’t have any features that the Xbox had. That was a built in hard drive to store game data and music. Instead Sony kept the original design of the Memory card. Microsoft’s Xbox also allowed users to play games via the internet with their Xbox Live Subscription service (though you have to pay for it).  The PS2 allows users to compete online as well. Though the users don’t have to pay for a subscription fee. Users using these online services are able to play games with their friends or form a team, a gaming community or a group like [DU]Death Unit – Which is a group run by Ron Chin (Founder/CEO/President of [DU]Death Unit Gaming Community. http://www.deathunit.org ). Today’s gaming systems are also multimedia centers as well. Consoles such as the Xbox 360 and the PS3 are multimedia centers.

ONLINE ROLE-PLAYING GAMES AND ITS IMPACT ON PEOPLE

Around a hundred million people worldwide play MMORPGs or massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Some of the most popular games include Everquest, Diablo and World of Warcraft that jointly generate around five billion dollars a year in subscription fees.  The reason that online role-playing games have been becoming increasingly popular is due to the fact, that the scope of these games is almost infinite. Most frequently online role-playing games are set in fantastic worlds where players choose their avatars to represent themselves in the game, and build their wealth and skills through a variety of activities. Players, often in groups, slay monsters, go on quests and acquire items such as weapons, armor and potions. People work to upgrade their characters’ levels which in turn bring more power, prestige and privileges. In game activities have also expanded into the real world, as the wealth generated by playing these games is sold on online marketplaces to people for real currency. Since these games possess so many interesting aspects and require people to invest time and thought into developing their characters, a lot of people develop unhealthy game addiction which results in degradation of their lifestyles. There are however, some positive aspects of gaming as well. A research has shown that people who spend reasonable amount of time playing games develop a better sense of teamwork and are able to overcome real life problems and obstacles more easily.

The massive virtual gaming worlds with millions of people are becoming increasingly intertwined with the real world. Since a lot of people are playing these games, a trade of in game items such as weapons, armor, gold and potions has flourished in online marketplaces such as eBay.  People who accumulate enough in game wealth sell it to other players for real currency. In the article by the name “World without the end “, Edward Castronova who is the associate professor of Economics at California State University, identified that by working in the game to generate virtual wealth and then selling the results for real money, it is possible to generate about $3.50 per hour. A lot of companies in China hire thousands of people known as “farmers” to play online role-playing games all day long and then profit from selling in game goods to other people for real money.

POSITIVE ASPECTS OF GAMES

A few recent researches have been done on the computer gaming impact on people and it was found that gaming has positive as well as negative aspects. Individual gaming promotes thinking, reflecting and creativity as players solve puzzles and figure out different ways to overcome obstacles imposed by the game environment. Playing is also a social activity, especially in the case of online role-playing games. Games of this nature incorporate text-based chat facilities that allow players to communicate on-screen as quickly as they type. In addition, the latest software and hardware development made vocal communication possible as well. Online communication among fellow players leads to the collaborative effort to overcome obstacles and people learn how to work as a team.

In addition environments created by such games as Everquest or World of Warcraft can help a person if they are shy or having trouble forming social relationships. Games of this nature provide environments where these kinds of people can safely try new things out, such as experimenting with being more vocal or even taking on a leadership role, which may not be an opportunity in real life.  Especially for teenagers, these games make it possible to try out different roles and identities at the time when they may be struggling with similar issues in real life.

Another research showed that playing games actually improve an individual’s hand eye coordination. Researchers have found that surgeons who spend at least three hours a week playing a video game made about 37 percent fewer mistakes in laparoscopic surgery and performed the task 27 percent faster then their counterparts who did not play video games.

Laparoscopic surgery involves the use of a tiny camera and surgical instruments which are controlled by joysticks outside the body. The surgical procedure involves making small incisions into which tiny cameras are inserted that project images of the inner body location on the screen. The surgery is then performed by a surgeon watching a screen and using remotely controlled surgical tools.  Some practical applications have been developed, that resemble video games, to help surgeons practice their techniques through video simulations.

NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF GAMES
           
Besides the positive aspects of online gaming and gaming in general, there are negative sides as well. As more and more people subscribe to increasingly popular online games, gaming addiction is becoming a serious problem. Extensive chat features give such games a social aspect, which is usually missing from games that are played offline. Such features add a collaborative and competitive nature, as working with or against other players can make it really hard for some people to take a break from playing.
According to Dr. Maressa Hecht Orzack, director of Computer Addiction Services at Harvard University, the social aspect is a primary factor in many game addictions.

Addiction is usually identified by compulsive involvement with game play that results in lack of interest in other activities, diminished achievement in school and problems in the family environment. A few cases of death and suicide also have been reported due to the extensive hours spent on gaming. Research has shown that the most active online role-players are males in their late twenties, who are mostly married people with jobs. A term called gaming widows appeared to identify those women who have lost their husbands to online role-playing games.  Sherry Myrow, a 23-year-old gaming widow established a support group online for women such as herself. “Fed up with watching Survivor, sleeping alone and watching her husband, an avid cook, scavenge for finger-food dinners, she started the online support group gamerwidow.com. Launched last April, it counts 465 members and offers forums for those who have lost partners to Xbox, Playstation and poker. But Myrow says it's the massively multi-player online role-playing games (called MMORPGs) that enrage most members.”(Reynolds 1)

The most popular games that reflect this case are Everquest, which is sometimes called “Evercrack” and World of Warcraft. World of Warcraft alone has achieved five million subscriptions in the two year period since its original release. What makes these games so addicting is a fact that some people are more susceptible to the neurotransmitter dopamine, a type of chemical in the brain. According to Dr.Mark Griffiths, a psychologist, “individual differences in dopamine processing can predetermine individuals as more or less likely to develop addictions.” He also asserts that motivation is based on two major factors, “the availability of reward, and the effort required obtaining it”. (Clark 2)

Since the reward system is a core in online role-playing games, people who accomplish objectives and get rewarded experience a dopamine rush and are further motivated to complete the next objective in order to experience that feeling of satisfaction again. Brain cells get accustomed to having that dopamine around. As the brain gets used to this stimulation, it requires more and more dopamine for the same effect. When the dopamine producing behavior is finally stopped, the brain isn't used to the lowered dopamine levels. At this point, craving and addiction enter the picture.

Although game addiction is becoming an increasingly serious problem, really few precautions have been taken to reduce and prevent game addiction. Therapists advise parents to limit the number of hours their children spend online and adults to rely on their willpower and common sense. 

Bibliography

“Are games addictive? The state of the science”, Neils Clark, February 28, 2006. Gamasutra Accessed March 10, 2006.
 http://www.gamasutra.com/features/20060228/clark_01.shtml

“Computer games in education project”,October  11, 2005. British Educational Communications and Technology Agency. Accessed March 7, 2006.
http://www.becta.org.uk/research/research.cfm?section=1&id=2846

“Loosing yourself in online gaming”, Darren Waters February 17, 2005. BBC news, Accessed March 5, 2006.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4265407.stm

“Surgeons may err less by playing video games”, Verena Dobnik , April 7, 2004. MSNBC, Accessed March 7, 2006.
 http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/4685909/

“Videogame widows”, Cythia Reynolds , January  16, 2006. Mcleans, Accessed March 7, 2006.
 http://www.macleans.ca/topstories/technology/article.jsp?content=20060116_119602_119602

“When games stop being fun”, David Becker, April 12, 2004. News.com, Accessed March 10, 2006.
 http://news.com.com/2100-1040-881673.html

“Worlds without end”, Edward Castronova , December 14, 2005. Economist, Accessed March 7, 2006.
http://www.economist.com/books/displaystory.cfm?story_id=5300059

Herman, Leonard; Jer Horwitz; Steve Kent; and Skyler Miller The History of Videogames http://www.gamespot.com/gamespot/features/video/hov/p10_09.html

Petri Kuittinen, “History of Home Video Games” http://users.tkk.fi/~eye/videogames/console.html

“Sega” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sega

John Kirriemuir “Video Gaming, Education and Digital Learning Technologies” http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february02/kirriemuir/02kirriemuir.html, February, 2002

James Orry, “59% of teachers would consider using video games in schools” http://www.pro-g.co.uk/news/nid/2105/ January 13th, 2006

John Kirriemuir “Video Gaming, Education and Digital Learning Technologies” http://www.dlib.org/dlib/february02/kirriemuir/02kirriemuir.html, February, 2002

Tracy L. Dietz, “An Examination of Violence and Gender Role Portrayals in Video Games: Implications for Gender Socialization and Aggressive Behavior” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, Vol. 38, 1998

G4 TV, http://www.g4.tv